Design of highway bridges based on AASHTO-LRFD
Introduction to bridge engineering
- Wooden bridge
- Metal truss bridge
- Suspension bridge
- Metal arch bridge
- Reinforce concrete bridge
- Girder bridge
Bridge specification and design standard
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The two major and some other requirements of foundation structures are explained in Lesson 28. Different types of shallow and deep foundations are illustrated in that lesson. The design considerations and different codal provisions of foundation structures are also explained. However, designs of all types of foundations are beyond the scope of this course. Only shallow footings are taken up for the design in this lesson. Several numerical problems are illustrated applying the theoretical considerations discussed in Lesson 28. Problems are solved explaining the different steps of the design.
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Design of Foundations
An overhead crane, commonly called a bridge crane, is a type of crane found in industrial environments. An overhead crane consists of parallel runways with a traveling bridge spanning the gap. A hoist, the lifting component of a crane, travels along the bridge. If the bridge is rigidly supported on two or more legs running on a fixed rail at ground level, the crane is called a gantry crane (USA, ASME B30 series) or a goliath crane (UK, BS 466).
Unlike mobile or construction cranes, overhead cranes are typically used for either manufacturing or maintenance applications, where efficiency or downtime are critical factors.
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Overhead Steel Crane Support Details
Good design must not only be safe but must aim to save construction costs, time and materials. The following procedures should help to achieve this and an ‘educated’ client will recognize the importance of funding this work with a realistic fee.
1.Decide the Location of Columns & Foundation and Type of Loads Acting on Them
On the building plan, the position of columns and loadbearing walls should be marked, and any other induced loadings and bending moments. The loads should be classified into dead, imposed and wind loadings, giving the appropriate partial safety factors for these loads.
2.Estimate Allowable Bearing Pressure of Soil Using Ground Investigation Report
From a study of the site ground investigation (if available), the strength of the soil at various depths or strata below foundation level should be studied, to determine the safe bearing capacity at various levels. These values – or presumed bearing values (from any standards or codes) in the absence of a site investigation – are used to estimate the allowable bearing pressure.
3.Decide Depth of Foundation
The invert level (underside) of the foundation is determined by either the minimum depth below ground level unaffected by temperature, moisture content variation or erosion – this can be as low as 450 mm in granular soils but, depending on the site and ground conditions, can exceed 1 m – or by the depth of basement, boiler house, service ducts or similar.
4.Calculate Foundation Area
The foundation area required is determined from the characteristic (working) loads and estimated allowable pressure. This determines the preliminary design of the types or combination of types of foundation. The selection is usually based on economics, speed and buildability of construction.
5.Determine Variation in Vertical Stresses
The variation of vertical stress w.r.t depth is determined, to check for possible over-stressing of any underlying weak strata.
6.Calculate Settlement
Settlement calculations should be carried out to check that the total and differential settlements are acceptable. If these are unacceptable then a revised allowable bearing pressure should be determined, and the foundation design amended to increase its area, or the foundations should be taken down to a deeper and stronger stratum.
7.Cost Control
Before finalizing the choice of foundation type, the preliminary costing of alternative superstructure designs should be made, to determine the economics of increasing superstructure costs in order to reduce foundation costs.
8.Consider Time
Alternative safe designs should be checked for economy, speed and simplicity of construction. Speed and economy can conflict in foundation construction – an initial low-cost solution may increase the construction period. Time is often of the essence for a client needing early return on capital investment. A fast-track programmed for superstructure construction can be negated by slow foundation construction.
9.Variation in ground condition
The design office should be prepared to amend the design, if excavation shows variation in ground conditions from those predicted from the site soil survey and investigation.
Design Procedures for a Building Foundation
Curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of concrete. Curing takes place immediately after concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of desired moisture and temperature conditions, both at depth and near the surface, for extended periods of time. Properly cured concrete has an adequate amount of moisture for continued hydration and development of strength, volume stability, resistance to freezing and thawing, and abrasion and scaling resistance.
The length of adequate curing time is dependent on the following factors:
- Mixture proportions
- Specified strength
- Size and shape of concrete member
- Ambient weather conditions
- Future exposure conditions
Slabs on ground (e.g. pavements, sidewalks, parking lots, driveways, floors, canal linings) and structural concrete (e.g. bridge decks, piers, columns, beams, slabs, small footings, cast-in-place walls, retaining walls) require a minimum curing period of seven days for ambient temperatures above 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 301 recommends a minimum curing period corresponding to concrete attaining 70 percent of the specified compressive strength. The often specified seven-day curing commonly corresponds to approximately 70 percent of the specified compressive strengths. The 70 percent strength level can be reached sooner when concrete cures at higher temperatures or when certain cement/admixture combinations are used. Similarly, longer time may be needed for different material combinations and/or lower curing temperatures. For this reason, ACI Committee 308 recommends the following minimum curing periods:
ASTM C 150 Type I cement seven days
ASTM C 150 Type II cement ten days
ASTM C 150 Type III cement three days
ASTM C 150 Type IV or V cement 14 days
ASTM C 595, C 845, C 1157 cements variable
There are three main functions of curing:
1) Maintaining mixing water in concrete during the early hardening process
Ponding and immersion
Ponding is typically used to cure flat surfaces on smaller jobs. Care should be taken to maintain curing water temperature at not more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than the concrete to prevent cracking due to thermal stresses. Immersion is mainly used in the laboratory for curing concrete test specimens.
Spraying and fogging
Spraying and fogging are used when the ambient temperatures are well above freezing and the humidity is low. Fogging can minimize plastic shrinkage cracking until the concrete attains final set.
Saturated wet coverings
Wet coverings saturated with water should be used after concrete has hardened enough to prevent surface damage. They should be kept constantly wet.
Left in Place Forms
Left in place forms usually provide satisfactory protection against moisture loss for formed concrete surfaces. The forms are usually left in place as long as the construction schedule allows. If the forms are made of wood, they should be kept moist, especially during hot, dry weather.
2) Reducing the loss of mixing water from the surface of the concrete
Covering concrete with impervious paper or plastic sheets
Impervious paper and plastic sheets can be applied on thoroughly wetted concrete. The concrete surface should be hard enough to prevent surface damage from placement activities.
Applying membrane-forming curing compounds
Membrane-forming curing compounds are used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete. They can be clear or translucent and white pigmented. White-pigmented compounds are recommended for hot and sunny weather conditions to reflect solar radiation. Curing compounds should be applied immediately after final finishing. Curing compound shall comply with ASTM C3094 or ASTM C13155.
3) Accelerating strength gain using heat and additional moisture
Live steam
Live steam at atmospheric pressure and high-pressure steam in autoclaves are the two methods of steam curing. Steam temperature for live steam at atmospheric pressure should be kept at about 140 degrees Fahrenheit or less until the desired concrete strength is achieved.
Heating coils
Heating coils are usually used as embedded elements near the surface of concrete elements. Their purpose is to protect concrete from freezing during cold weather concreting.
Electrical heated forms or pads
Electrical heated forms or pads are primarily used by precast concrete producers.
Concrete blankets
Concrete insulation blankets are used to cover and insulate concrete surfaces subjected to freezing temperatures during the curing period. The concrete should be hard enough to prevent surface damage when covering with concrete blankets.
Other forms of curing include internal moist curing with lightweight aggregates or absorbent polymer particles. For mass concrete elements (usually thicker than 3 feet), a thermal control plan is usually developed to help control thermal stresses. Additional information can be found in ACI Committee 308 report Guide to Curing Concrete. For specialty concretes, it is recommended to refer to other ACI reports as follows:
- Refractory concrete ACI 547.1R
- Insulating concrete ACI 523.1R
- Expansive cement concrete ACI 223
- Roller-compacted concrete ACI 207.5R
- Architectural concrete ACI 303R
- Shotcrete ACI 506.2
- Fiber-reinforced concrete ACI 544.3R
- Vertical slipform construction ACI 313
Curing in either cold or hot weather requires additional attention. In cold weather, some of the procedures include heated enclosures, evaporation reducers, curing compounds, and insulating blankets. The temperature of fresh concrete shall be above 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The curing period for cold weather concrete is longer than the standard period due to reduced rate of strength gain. Compressive strength of concrete cured and maintained at 50 degrees Fahrenheit is expected to gain strength half as quickly as concrete cured at 73 degrees Fahrenheit. In hot weather, curing and protection are critical due to rapid moisture loss from fresh concrete. The curing actually starts before concrete is placed by wetting substrate surfaces with water. Sunscreens, windscreens, fogging, and evaporation retardants can be used for hot weather concrete placements. Since concrete strength gain in hot weather is faster, curing period may be reduced. Additional information can be found in ACI 306.1, Standard Specification for Cold Weather Concreting, ACI 306R, Cold Weather Concreting, ACI 305.1, Specification for Hot Weather Concreting, and ACI 305R, Hot Weather Concreting
Curing Concrete Test Specimens
Curing of concrete test specimens is usually different from concrete placed during construction. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has developed two standards for making and curing concrete specimens. ASTM C192 is intended for laboratory samples while ASTM C31 is intended for field samples. Both documents provide standardized requirements for making, curing, protecting, and transporting concrete test specimens under field or laboratory conditions, respectively.
ASTM C192 provides procedures for evaluation of different mixtures in laboratory conditions. It is usually used in the initial stage of the project, or for research purposes.
ASTM C31 is used for acceptance testing and can also be used as a decision tool for form or shoring removal. Depending on its intended purpose, the standard defines two curing regimes: standard curing for acceptance testing and field curing for form/shoring removal. Variation in standard curing of test specimens can dramatically affect measured concrete properties. According to the National Ready Mix Concrete Association (NRMCA), strength for concrete air cured for one day followed by 27 days moist cured will be approximately 8 percent lower than for concrete moist cured for the entire period. The strength reduction is 11 percent and 18 percent for concrete specimens initially cured in air for three days and seven days, respectively. For the same air/moist curing combinations, but 100 degrees Fahrenheit air curing temperature, the 28-day strength will be approximately 11 percent, 22 percent, and 26 percent lower, respectively.
Role of Concrete Curing
Why hook is provided in stirrups
- To prevent from buckling of column.
- The main requirement for safety against bond failure is it provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates.
- Hooks are provided for to resist seismic movement.
- To prevent concrete from splitting outward.
- It prevent slippage of steel from the concrete.
- To Keep longitudinal steel bars in position and hold steel tightly.
This civil engineering article provides brief insight about why the hooks are provided in stirrups.
Hook is offered in stirrups for the subsequent purposes:
- To avert buckling of column.
- The major need for protection against bond breakdown as it offers an adequate expansion of the bar length above the point wherein/where the steel is needed to grow its yield stress as well as the length should be as a minimum up to its development length.
- Hooks are offered for to oppose seismic movement.
- To avert concrete from partitioning externally.
- It averts steel slippage from the concrete.
- To maintain longitudinal steel bars in place as well as keep steel firmly.
Why hook is provided in stirrups
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or similar obstruction. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material. A structure that carries water above land is known as an aqueduct. ‘Box culverts’ includes analyses of all relevant load cases using a stiffness matrix solution with spring supports and compilations of load combination bending moments and shears (at supports and at ’d’ from supports)
- Culvert data
- earth pressure coefficients
- loadings
- load combinations
- buoyancy and sliding checks
- analysis of roof, walls and base loading by stiffness matrix
- partial factors
- design moments
- design shears
Click here to download excel worksheet
1.Box culvert design materials
2.Box culvert design geometry
3.Box culvert design loads
4.Box culvert design analysis
5.Box culvert design wall
6.1.Box culvert design slab
7.Box culvert design drawing
Excel Sheet Box Culvert Analysis and Design

Definition of cover block use in construction

Pile arrangement in group
One-way slabs transfer the imposed loads in one direction only. They may be supported on two opposite sides only
in which the structural action is essentially one-way, the loads being carried in direction perpendicular to
the supporting beams or walls.
But rectangular slabs often have such proportions and supports (e.g., relatively deep, stiff monolithic concrete beams)
that result in two-way action. At any point, such slabs are curved in both directions resulting in biaxial
bending moments. It is convenient to think of such slabs as consisting of two sets of parallel strips, in each direction
and intersecting each other. So part of the load is carried by one set and the remainder by the other.
Analysis of Two-way Slabs by Coefficient Method
The determination of exact moments in two-way slabs with various support conditions is mathematically formidable
and not suited to design practice. Various simplified methods are therefore adopted for determining moments, shears
and reactions in such slabs. Quite popular and widely used among these methods is one using ‘Moment Coefficient’
based on the 1963 ACI Code, for the special case of two-way slabs supported on four sides by relatively stiff beams.
One-way and two-way slab Design
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One-way and Two-way Slabs
There are many texts on pile foundations. Generally, experience shows us that
undergraduates find most of these texts complicated and difficult to
understand.
This guide has extracted the main points and puts together the whole process of
pile foundation design in a student friendly manner.
The guide is presented in two versions: text-version (compendium from) and
this web-version that can be accessed via internet or intranet and can be used as
a supplementary self-assisting students guide.
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of
the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground
surface. The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles.
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or
rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity The
main types of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made
from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected
to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting
characteristic piles are classified accordingly. In the following chapter we learn
about, classifications, functions and pros and cons of piles.
Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundations is:to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base
does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation
show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the
estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may become
considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be
cheaper than any other compared ground improvement costs.
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the
shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on
pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist
horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over
water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
End bearing piles
These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerabledepth below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying
capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see
figure 1.1). The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as
such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only
be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water.
Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the
soil surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes
"Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect
on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of
the ground water and consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is
influenced by the results of the site investigate on and soil test.
Please download attachment file to see details Pile Foundation Design Guide for student
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Pile Foundation Design Guide
The foundation is an essential building system that transfers column and wall forces to the supporting soil. Depending on the soil properties and building loads, the engineer may choose to support the structure on a shallow or deep foundation system.
Isolated foundation are mostly used for columns and frame structure to transfer point load on a larger area depending on the soil bearing capacity.
It also includes the ground water level effect on the foundation load and soil pressure. It finally gives the final design with a proper design diagram to elaborate its results.
Very excellent Excel Sheet for the design and analysis of Isolated Foundation of column based on ACI 318 code. It involves all the checks and steps involved.
The excel sheet is just for educational purpose and the website stands not responsible for any accident or any consequences as a result of usage of this excel sheet
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Isolated Foundation Design and Analysis Excel Sheet ACI 318M-95
Bar bending schedule (or schedule of bars) is a list of reinforcement bars, a given RCC work item, and is presented in a tabular form for easy visual reference.
Bar bending schedule provides details of reinforcement cutting and bending length.Advantages of bar bending schedule when used along with reinforcement detailed drawing improves the quality of construction, cost and time saving for concrete construction works.
Bar bending schedule is created beforehand prior to cutting and bending of rebars.
Detailed reinforcement cutting and bending length are included in bar bending schedule. By utilizing bending schedule along with reinforcement detailed drawing, the quality of construction is improved significantly as well as huge time is curtailed for accomplishing concrete construction works.
he bar bending schedule includes all the necessary details of bars which involve diameter, shape of bending, length of each bent and straight portions, angles of bending, total length of each bar, and number of each type of bar.
Developing and keeping bar bending schedule data at construction sites is one of the most lingering and laborious tasks. Producing lists of reinforcement steel bars with size, number of bars, cutting length, weight of steel and a sketch demonstrating the shape of the bar that should be bent with all dimensions and bend angle is a vital task in each construction site that requires too much amount of time for data entry and calculations.
Benefits of bar bending schedule:
With the formation of a bar schedule, and organize them as per the lengths, it will result in cutting bar inexpensively as well as minimizing the bar cutting wastages.
It becomes simple to deal with the reinforcement stock neessary for identified time duration.
It will facilitate to fabrication of R/F with structure.
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Bar Bending Schedule of Box Culvert
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Strength Design Method Analysis and Design of T Beams
Design of rectangular footings. Designing procedure: Service load design: Determine required footing size from required footing area and limitation of footing

The procedure for designing a square footing is as follows: Service load design: Determine size of footing.
Please download this PowerPoint presentation file to see more details
File Name : Design of mat and combined footing
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Design of mat and combined footing
Shear failure of reinforced concrete, more properly called “diagonal tension failure”
If a beam without properly designed shear reinforcement is overloaded to failure, shear collapse is likely to occur suddenlywith no advancewarning (brittle failure). Therefore, concrete must be provided by “special shear reinforcement” to insure flexural failure would occur before shear failure. In otherwords,wewant tomake sure that beam will fail in a ductile manner and in flexure not in shear. Please download this PowerPoint presentation file to see more details
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Shear and Diagonal Tension in Beams
Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are carried by the supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the directions.
SNRN 11/27/2019 Admin Bandung Indonesia
Design of Two-Way Floor Slab System

RCM ACI Builder:
Flexural member design (rectangular and T-shaped sections): Calculate the area of the steel according to the applied moment, calculate the moment according to the provided steel area
Cutting Design: Cutting and Axial Compression, Cutting and Flexibility, Cutting and Axial Stretching
Combined and torsional shear design in both adjustment and balance rotation modes
Punch design for prefabricated and non-prefabricated concrete members with all column geometry: inner column, edge and corner.
Immediate and long-term deviation control for beams and slabs
Control of flexural cracking in unilateral beams and slabs
Pillar cap design with most general geometric items: 2,3,4,5 and narrow strip caps.
Design of separate stands for screening and focus on loading.